1.4 Quantum Wave Mechanics: The Schrodinger Wave Equations / Standing Wave Interactions (1928)

1.4 Quantum Wave Mechanics: The Schrodinger Wave Equations / Standing Wave Interactions (1928)
Quantum theory was thus essentially founded on the experimental observations of frequency and wavelength for both light and matter. These empirical facts are obviously consistent with the Spherical Standing Wave structure of matter.
1. Planck's discovery that energy is related to frequency in the equation E=hf 2. The Equivalence of Energy, Frequency and Mass E=hf=mc2, which deduces the Compton Wavelength Y=h/mc 3. The de Broglie wavelength y=h/mv
It was Erwin Schrodinger who discovered that when frequency f and de Broglie wavelength y were substituted into general wave equations it becomes possible to express energy E and momentum mv (from the above equations) as wave functions - thus a confined particle (e.g. an electron in an atom/molecule) with known energy and momentum functions could be described with a certain wave function.
From this it was further found that only certain frequency wave functions, like frequencies on musical strings, were allowed to exist. These allowed functions and their frequencies depended on the confining structure (atom or molecule) that the electron was bound to (analogous to how strings are bound to a violin, and only then can they resonate at certain frequencies).
Significantly, these allowed frequencies corresponded to the observed discrete frequencies of light emitted and absorbed by electrons bound in atoms/molecules. This further confirmed the standing wave properties of matter, and thus that only certain standing wave frequencies could exist which corresponded to certain energy states. The agreement of observed frequencies and Schrodinger's Wave Equations further established the fundamental importance of Quantum Theory and thus the Wave properties of both light and matter. As Albert Einstein explains;
How can one assign a discrete succession of energy values E to a system specified in the sense of classical mechanics (the energy function is a given function of the co-ordinates x and the corresponding momenta mv)? Planck's constant h relates the frequency f =E/h to the energy values E. It is therefore sufficient to assign to the system a succession of discrete frequency f values. This reminds us of the fact that in acoustics a series of discrete frequency values is coordinated to a linear partial differential equation (for given boundary conditions) namely the sinusoidal periodic solutions. In corresponding manner, Schrodinger set himself the task of coordinating a partial differential equation for a scalar wave function to the given energy function E (x, mv), where the position x and time t are independent variables. (Albert Einstein, 1936)
And here we have a final piece of the puzzle in a sense, for it was Schrodinger who discovered that the standing waves are scalar waves rather than vector electromagnetic waves. This is a most important difference. Electromagnetic waves are vector waves - at each point in Space the wave equations yield a vector quantity which describes both a direction and an amplitude (size of force) of the wave, and this relates to the original construction of the e-m field by Faraday which described both a force and a direction of how this force acted on other matter.
Spherical Wave Motions of Space are Scalar waves - at each point in Space the wave equations yield a single quantity which simply describes the wave amplitude (there is no directional component). For example, sound waves are scalar waves where the wave amplitude describes the Motion (or compression) of the wave medium (air). Likewise Space is a nearly rigid Wave-Medium which propagates Wave-Motions.
With de Broglie's introduction of the concept of standing waves to explain the discrete energy states of atoms and molecules, and the introduction of scalar waves by Schrodinger, they had intuitively grasped important truths of nature as Albert Einstein confirms;
Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the wave character of the phenomena of motion as assumed by the theory does, really, correspond to the facts. The de Broglie-Schrodinger method, which has in a certain sense the character of a field theory, does indeed deduce the existence of only discrete states, in surprising agreement with empirical facts. It does so on the basis of differential equations applying a kind of resonance argument. (Albert Einstein, 1927)
So let us now explain in more detail this phenomena of Light energy being emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts (photons) due to Resonant Standing Wave interactions. Firstly, we must understand Principle Two and realise that the velocity of wave Motions in Space is not constant, and in fact depends upon both the Wave-Amplitude and the Wave-Density (square of Wave-Amplitude). These are simply the properties of Space as a Wave-medium.

1.3 Quantum Theory: The Compton Wavelength 2.43*10-12m of the Electron Y=h/mc (1923)

1.3 Quantum Theory: The Compton Wavelength 2.43*10-12m of the Electron Y=h/mc (1923)

As stated, in hindsight there were many clues as to the Wave Structure of the Electron. Another obvious clue being that the electron itself has a 'Compton' wavelength (named after American experimental physicist Holly Compton who discovered this from experiments with electron beams). But unfortunately they had come to accept the particle / wave duality of matter and simply continued to assume that somehow this paradoxical conception of matter was true, and thus beyond human comprehension. (So they stopped looking for an obvious solution!)
So let us briefly explain the Compton Wavelength. Experiments show that Energy is directly related to both Frequency and Mass (this is true since we now realise that they are ALL caused by Wave-Motion). As we know from experiment the energy E and mass m of the electron, and the velocity of light c, we can calculate the Compton Wavelength Y of the Electron as follows; E=hf=mc2 and f=c/Y, thus hc/Y= mc2 resulting in Y=h/mc which for the Electron = 2.43*10-12m.

1.2 Quantum Theory / Mechanics: de Broglie's Discovery of the Wave Properties of Electrons (1927)

1.2 Quantum Theory / Mechanics: de Broglie's Discovery of the Wave Properties of Electrons (1927)

The next step was taken by de Broglie. He asked himself how the discrete states could be understood by the aid of current concepts, and hit on a parallel with stationary (standing) waves, as for instance in the case of proper frequencies of organ pipes and strings in acoustics. (Albert Einstein, 1954)
It is with some frustration that I now read these quotes, as it is obvious in hindsight as to their errors, and how simply they can now be solved! de Broglie's realisation that standing waves exist at discrete frequencies and thus energies is obviously true and important, yet he continued with the error of the particle concept and thus imagined particles moving in a wavelike manner! Nonetheless, as he was close to the truth he had considerable success with his theory, and these predicted wave properties of matter were shortly thereafter confirmed from experiments (Davisson and Germer, 1927) on the scattering of electrons through crystals (which act as diffraction slits). As Albert Einstein confirms;
Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the wave character of the phenomena of motion as assumed by the theory does, really, correspond to the facts. (Albert Einstein, 1954)
So by 1927 the wave properties of matter had been predicted theoretically by de Broglie, and then confirmed by experiment. But unfortunately these scientists continued to believe in the existence of discrete particles, and thus they misinterpreted this most important discovery of the standing wave properties of matter.
1.2.1 de Broglie's Interpretation of the Standing Waves as the Wave-Like Motion of a Particle in Orbit (1927)
In 1913, Niels Bohr had developed a simple (though only partly correct) model for the hydrogen atom that assumed; (Our further comments in brackets)
i) That the electron particle moves in circular orbits about the proton particle. (This is nearly correct, they are not 'orbits' but complex Standing Wave patterns)ii) Only certain orbits are stable. (This is nearly correct, only certain Standing Wave patterns are resonantly stable)iii) Light is emitted and absorbed by the atom when the electron 'jumps' from one allowed orbital state to a another. (This is nearly correct, the electrons move from one stable Standing Wave pattern to another. This is known as 'Resonant Coupling' and is explained in Section 1.4.)
This early atomic model had some limited success because it was obviously created to explain the discrete energy states of light emitted and absorbed by bound electrons in atoms or molecules, as discovered by Planck in 1900. de Broglie was aware of Bohr's model for the atom and he cleverly found a way of explaining why only certain orbits were 'allowed' for the electron. As Albert Einstein explains;
de Broglie conceived an electron revolving about the atomic nucleus as being connected with a hypothetical wave train, and made intelligible to some extent the discrete character of Bohr's 'permitted' paths by the stationary (standing) character of the corresponding waves. (Albert Einstein, 1940)
Fig: 1.2.1 The allowed discrete orbits of the electron as imagined by de Broglie.
de Broglie assumed that because light had both particle and wave properties, that this may also be true for matter. Thus he was not actually looking for the wave structure of matter. Instead, as matter was already assumed to be a particle, he was looking for wave properties of matter to complement the known particle properties. As a consequence of this particle/wave duality, de Broglie imagined the standing waves to be related to discrete wavelengths and standing waves for certain orbits of the electron particle about the proton. (Rather than considering the actual standing wave structure of the electron itself.)
From de Broglie's perspective, and from modern physics at that time, this solution had a certain charm. It maintained the particle - wave duality for BOTH light and matter, and at the same time explained why only certain orbits of the electron (which relate to whole numbers of standing waves) were allowed, which fitted beautifully with Niels Bohr model of the atom. de Broglie further explains his reasoning for the particle/wave duality of matter in his 1929 Nobel Prize acceptance speech;
On the one hand the quantum theory of light cannot be considered satisfactory since it defines the energy of a light particle (photon) by the equation E=hf containing the frequency f. Now a purely particle theory contains nothing that enables us to define a frequency; for this reason alone, therefore, we are compelled, in the case of light, to introduce the idea of a particle and that of frequency simultaneously. On the other hand, determination of the stable motion of electrons in the atom introduces integers, and up to this point the only phenomena involving integers in physics were those of interference and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested to me the idea that electrons too could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency (wave properties) must be assigned to them also. (de Broglie, 1929)
The solution to their problems was first found by Wolff (1986). He discovered two things (both of which deserve a Nobel prize in their own right);
Firstly, from reading Feynman's PhD thesis (see reference, Feynman and Wheeler, 1945) he was aware of Feynman's conception of charged particles which 'somehow' generated Spherical Electromagnetic In and Out Waves (Feynman called them advanced and retarded waves), but Wolff realised that there are no solutions for spherical vector electromagnetic waves (which are mathematical waves which require both a quantity of force and a direction of force, i.e. vector). Wolff had the foresight to try using real waves, which are Scalar (defined by their Wave-Amplitude only).And this then led to a series of remarkable discoveries.
He realised that spherical In and Out-Waves removed the need for a separate particle, as the Wave-Center of the Spherical Waves created the particle effect.He then discovered that when one spherical standing wave was moving relative to another the Doppler shifts gave rise to BOTH the de Broglie Wavelength AND the Mass increase of Albert Einstein's Relativity. (i.e. Wolff demonstrated that when two charged particles (Wave-Centers of two SSWs) are moving relative to one another they gives rise to beats of interference (caused by the Doppler shifting of the In and Out Waves due to relative Motion) which were identified in experiments as the de Broglie wavelength y=h/mv, and also gave rise to the frequency increases and thus energy/mass increases (as E=hf =mc2) of Special Relativity.
Thus in the one equation he had deduced, with mathematical certainty, the two observed phenomena due to relative motion, which respectively found central parts of both Quantum Theory and Albert Einstein's Special Relativity. (Thus for the first time uniting these two theories from one common theoretical foundation!)This then led to his further work on resonant coupling which finally solved the puzzle of the 'photon' and explained why light energy is only ever emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts. (See Section 1.4)
Unfortunately for modern physics, and ultimately for human knowledge, this obvious solution was never considered by de Broglie, Albert Einstein, Bohr, Schrodinger, Heisenberg, Dirac, Born, Feynman, etc. etc. Thus the now obvious solution of realising that matter was a Spherical Standing Wave that causes the point particle effect at the Wave-Center remained unknown and ignored, and instead, the confusing and paradoxical concept of the particle / wave duality was retained.

1.1 Quantum Physics Foundations: Max Planck's Discovery of Particle / Quantum Properties of Light (1900)

1.1 Quantum Physics Foundations: Max Planck's Discovery of Particle / Quantum Properties of Light (1900)
In 1900 Max Planck made a profound discovery. He showed (from purely formal / mathematical foundations) that light must be emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts if it was to correctly describe observed phenomena (i.e. Blackbody radiation). Prior to then light had been considered as a continuous electromagnetic wave, thus the discrete nature of light was completely unexpected, as Albert Einstein explains;
About fifteen years ago (1899) nobody had yet doubted that a correct account of the electrical, optical, and thermal properties of matter was possible on the basis of Galileo-Newtonian mechanics applied to molecular motion and of Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field. (Albert Einstein, 1915)
Then Planck showed that in order to establish a law of heat radiation (Infra red light waves) consonant with experience, it was necessary to employ a method of calculation whose incompatibility with the principles of classical physics became clearer and clearer. For with this method of calculation, Planck introduced into physics the quantum hypothesis, which has since received brilliant confirmation. (Albert Einstein, 1914)
In the year nineteen hundred, in the course of purely theoretical (mathematical) investigation, Max Planck made a very remarkable discovery: the law of radiation of bodies as a function of temperature could not be derived solely from the Laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the relevant experiments, radiation of a given frequency f had to be treated as though it consisted of energy atoms (photons) of the individual energy hf, where h is Planck's universal constant. During the years following, it was shown that light was everywhere produced and absorbed in such energy quanta. In particular, Niels Bohr was able to largely understand the structure of the atom, on the assumption that the atoms can only have discrete energy values, and that the discontinuous transitions between them are connected with the emission or absorption of energy quantum. This threw some light on the fact that in their gaseous state elements and their compounds radiate and absorb only light of certain sharply defined frequencies. (Albert Einstein, 1940)
Even the Greeks had already conceived the atomistic nature of matter and the concept was raised to a high degree of probability by the scientists of the nineteenth century. But it was Planck's law of radiation that yielded the first exact determination - independent of other assumptions - of the absolute magnitudes of atoms. More than that, he showed convincingly that in addition to the atomistic structure of matter there is a kind of atomistic structure to energy, governed by the universal constant h, which was introduced by Planck. This discovery became the basis of all twentieth-century research in physics and has almost entirely conditioned its development ever since. Without this discovery it would not have been possible to establish a workable theory of molecules and atoms and the energy processes that govern their transformations. Moreover, it has shattered the whole framework of classical mechanics and electrodynamics and set science a fresh task: that of finding a new conceptual basis for all physics. Despite remarkable partial gains, the problem is still far from a satisfactory solution. (Albert Einstein, 1950)
Albert Einstein (1905) used Planck's relationship to explain the results of the photoelectric effect which showed that the energy E of ejected electrons was dependent upon the frequency f of incident light as described in the equation E=hf. It is ironic that in 1921 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, though he never believed in particles and acknowledged that he did not know the cause of the discrete energy transfers (photons) which were contradictory to his continuous field theory of matter!In 1954 Albert Einstein wrote to his friend Michael Besso expressing his frustration;
All these fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no nearer to the answer to the question, 'What are light quanta?' Nowadays every Tom, Dick and Harry thinks he knows it, but he is mistaken. (Albert Einstein, 1954)
Most importantly, Albert Einstein also suspected that Matter could not be described by a continuous spherical force field;
I consider it quite possible that physics cannot be based on the field concept, i.e., on continuous structures. In that case, nothing remains of my entire castle in the air, gravitation theory included, [and of] the rest of modern physics. (Albert Einstein, 1954)
Albert Einstein's suspicions were well justified, for he had spent a lifetime trying (and failing) to create a unified field theory of matter that explained both Quantum Theory / Light and Relativity / Gravity.In fact Matter, as a Spherical Standing Wave which causes the 'Field' effect, interacts with other matter in discrete standing wave patterns, not with continuous force fields as he had imagined, thus his task was ultimately impossible, as he sadly came to realise towards the end of his life.
However, his work on the photoelectric effect confirmed that light energy was only emitted and absorbed by electrons in discrete amounts or quanta. This quanta of light energy soon became known as the 'photon' (i.e. discrete like a particle) and led to the paradox that light behaved both as a continuous e-m wave (Maxwell, Albert Einstein) as well as a discrete particle/photon (Planck, Albert Einstein). So we see that Albert Einstein was partly responsible for the discovery of the particle/photon concept of light, though he completely rejected the notion of discrete particles. He writes;
Since the theory of general relativity implies the representation of physical reality by a continuous field, the concept of particles or material points cannot play a fundamental part, nor can the concept of motion. (Albert Einstein)
Albert Einstein is correct that there are no discrete particles, and that the particle can only appear as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high. But it is the high Wave-Amplitude of the Wave-Center of a Spherical Standing Wave in Space (not of a continuous spherical force field) that causes the particle effect. Thus of three concepts, particles, force fields, and motion, it finally turns out that Motion, as the spherical wave motion of space, is the correct concept, as it then explains both particles and fields. (For further explanation see Article on Relativity)It is most important to realise though that Albert Einstein was correct in imagining matter as being spatially extended, as he explains;
I wished to show that space time is not necessarily something to which one can ascribe to a separate existence, independently of the actual objects of physical reality. Physical objects are not in space, but these objects are spatially extended. In this way the concept empty space loses its meaning. (Albert Einstein)
It is certainly true that the particle and its forces / fields are very useful mathematical concepts, unfortunately, they also cause many problems and paradoxes because they are approximations to reality and do not physically exist. We can now finally solve these problems by understanding the reason for these discrete energy states, which are due to the fact that standing waves only exist at discrete frequencies, like notes on the string of a guitar, thus while the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter predicts that energy exchanges will be discrete, as observed, the continuous e-m wave does not anticipate this. Thus the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter explains Max Planck's (1900) discovery that there are only certain allowed discrete energy states for electrons in molecules and atoms, and further, that light is only ever emitted and absorbed by electrons in discrete or 'quantum' amounts, as the electrons move from one stable standing wave pattern to another.

Introduction to Quantum PhysicsQuantum Theory / Wave Mechanics

Introduction to Quantum PhysicsQuantum Theory / Wave Mechanics
From 1900 to 1930 there was a revolution in the foundations of our understanding of light and matter interactions. In 1900 Planck showed that light energy must be emitted and absorbed in discrete 'quanta' to explain blackbody radiation. Then in 1905 Einstein showed that the energy of light is determined by its frequency, where E=hf. Finally, in the late 1920s, de Broglie and Schrodinger introduced the concept of Standing Waves to explain these discrete frequency and energy states of light and matter (standing waves only exist at discrete frequencies and thus energy states).
So it is clear that Waves are central to Quantum Physics and our understanding of the structure and discrete energy states of Matter (which explains why Quantum Theory is also called Quantum Wave Mechanics). As we shall explain, the problems and absurdities of quantum theory have been caused by the continuing assumption of the discrete 'particle' concept for both light and matter, and thus the resulting paradox of the 'Particle / Wave' duality.
As we are dealing with a scientific theory, it is necessary to begin by stating the central Principles of the 'Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Wave Structure of Matter', which describe how Matter exists in Space as a Spherical Standing Wave and interacts with other Matter in the Space around it. From this foundation we can then deduce the solutions to many problems currently found in Quantum Theory caused by this ancient concept that matter exists as 'particles'.
For example, the obvious solution to the paradox of the particle / wave duality of matter is to realise that the Wave-Center of the Spherical Standing Wave causes the observed 'particle' effects of Matter (see wave diagram below). Likewise, the discrete 'particle' properties of Light (quanta / photons) are caused by Standing Wave interactions which only occur at discrete frequencies and thus energy states.
I think it is useful to end this quantum physics introduction with two very important quotes. Firstly from Erwin Schrodinger;
What we observe as material bodies and forces are nothing but shapes and variations in the structure of space. Particles are just schaumkommen (appearances). The world is given to me only once, not one existing and one perceived. Subject and object are only one. The barrier between them cannot be said to have broken down as a result of recent experience in the physical sciences, for this barrier does not exist. (Erwin Schrodinger, on Quantum Theory)
Because Schrodinger believed in real waves, he was never happy with Max Born's statistical / probability interpretation of the waves that became commonly accepted (and was actively promoted by Heisenberg and Bohr) in Quantum Theory / Mechanics.
Let me say at the outset, that in this discourse, I am opposing not a few special statements of quantum mechanics / quantum theory held today (1950s), I am opposing as it were the whole of it, I am opposing its basic views that have been shaped 25 years ago, when Max Born put forward his probability interpretation, which was accepted by almost everybody. (Schrödinger E, The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. Ox Bow Press, Woodbridge, CN, 1995)
I don't like it, and I'm sorry I ever had anything to do with it. (Erwin Schrodinger talking about quantum theory.)
And I very strongly agree with Schrodinger (and greatly respect him) when he writes;
The scientist only imposes two things, namely truth and sincerity, imposes them upon himself and upon other scientists. (Schrodinger)
Secondly, David Bohm provides a clear account of how this incorrect 'particle' conception of matter not only causes harm to the Sciences, but also to the way we think and live, and thus to our very society and its future evolution.
The notion that all these fragments is separately existent is evidently an illusion, and this illusion cannot do other than lead to endless conflict and confusion. Indeed, the attempt to live according to the notion that the fragments are really separate is, in essence, what has led to the growing series of extremely urgent crises that is confronting us today. Thus, as is now well known, this way of life has brought about pollution, destruction of the balance of nature, over-population, world-wide economic and political disorder and the creation of an overall environment that is neither physically nor mentally healthy for most of the people who live in it. Individually there has developed a widespread feeling of helplessness and despair, in the face of what seems to be an overwhelming mass of disparate social forces, going beyond the control and even the comprehension of the human beings who are caught up in it.(David Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 1980)

Quantum Physics

On the one hand the quantum theory of light cannot be considered satisfactory since it defines the energy of a light particle (photon) by the equation E=hf containing the frequency f. Now a purely particle theory contains nothing that enables us to define a frequency; for this reason alone, therefore, we are compelled, in the case of light, to introduce the idea of a particle and that of frequency simultaneously. On the other hand, determination of the stable motion of electrons in the atom introduces integers, and up to this point the only phenomena involving integers in physics were those of interference and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested to me the idea that electrons too could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency (wave properties) must be assigned to them also. (Louis de Broglie, Nobel Prize Speech, Quantum Physics, 1929)
The development during the present century is characterized by two theoretical systems essentially independent of each other: the theory of relativity and the quantum theory. The two systems do not directly contradict each other; but they seem little adapted to fusion into one unified theory. ... Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the wave character of the phenomena of motion as assumed by the theory do, really, correspond to the facts. ... de Broglie conceived an electron revolving about the atomic nucleus as being connected with a hypothetical wave train, and made intelligible to some extent the discrete character of Bohr's 'permitted' paths by the stationary (standing) character of the corresponding waves. (Albert Einstein, On Quantum Mechanics, 1940)A careful analysis of the process of observation in atomic physics has shown that the subatomic particles have no meaning as isolated entities, but can only be understood as interconnections between the preparation of an experiment and the subsequent measurement. Quantum theory thus reveals a basic oneness of the universe. It shows that we cannot decompose the world into independently existing smallest units. As we penetrate into matter, nature does not show us any isolated ‘basic building blocks’, but rather appears as a complicated web of relations between the various parts of the whole. (Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics, On Quantum Theory)